Buddhism and Veganism Read online

  Moreover, Mañjuśrī, the dhātu of all beings is the dharmadhātu [spiritual Totality], so Buddhas do not eat meat because they would be eating the flesh of one single dhātu.”10

  This is a fascinating revelation. By eating meat we are actually descending into cannibalism! So, what about veganism? Is there any support for it in the Buddhist sutras? Yes, there is. The Buddha tended to teach in gradations of spiritual and moral intensity, tailoring his messages according to the levels of attainment of his auditors, from the basic to the more complex and ethically lofty. Thus, while vegetarianism is taught in many of the Mahayana sutras, it would appear that veganism is the ideal to move toward as promulgated in the Surangama Sutra, one of the spiritually richest of all Mahayana sutras, where the Buddha asks and answers his own question:

  How … can you eat the flesh of living beings and so pretend to be my disciple? …

  All bhiksus [Buddhist monks] who live purely and all Bodhisattvas always refrain even from walking on the grass; how can they agree to uproot it? How then can those who practise great compassion feed on the flesh and blood of living beings? If bhiksus do not wear garments made of silk, boots of local leather and furs, and refrain from consuming milk, cream and butter, they will really be liberated from the worldly; after paying their former debts, they will not transmigrate in the three realms of existence. Why? Because by using animal products, one creates causes, just like a man who eats cereals grown in the soil and whose feet cannot leave the ground. If a man can (control) his body and mind and thereby refrains from eating animal flesh and wearing animal products, I say he will really be liberated. This teaching of mine is that of the Buddha whereas any other is that of evil demons.11

  Thus to liberate animals from exploitation and murder is to spiritually liberate ourselves.

  It has been my own experience, and that of many others, that the active expansion of one’s heartfelt compassion towards animals first begins with vegetarianism, and then veganism, and then as a consequence embraces opposition to such practices as vivisection, experimentation on living animals. Vivisection is often defended by its promoters as a practice that is compassionate towards human beings, as it allegedly provides cures for human ailments and relieves humans of their suffering under all forms of sickness. This is a propagandistic lie of the most heinous kind.

  First, the physiological and anatomical differences and unexpected, unpredictable enzymatic and general biological variations between animals and humans are so great that one can never reliably extrapolate findings from any given animal test to a human being. It is like experimenting on cheetahs and hoping to gain valid results applicable to sloths! One simply cannot reliably extrapolate physiological data across the species barrier. Just one example from my book, Vivisection Unveiled: in the course of my research into the subject of live-animal experimentation, I established (from my study of vivisectors’ own experimentation records) that rabbits can survive a dose of deadly strychnine 30 times greater (relative to body weight) than would kill a human being!12 With variations of biological response on this scale, and there are others which are even more astounding, who can place any reliance on animals tests for the safety and efficacy of our medicines and chemicals?

  Second, even if vivisection were a scientifically and methodologically sound practice for the acquiring of human knowledge in the fields of human health and therapeutics (which it emphatically is not), would that give us the right to brutalise, torture and kill those creatures who have done us no harm and who are powerless to fight back? Clearly not. Trying to help one sentient being by slaughtering another is no way to move forward on a spiritual path, or even on a decent human path. It is a contradiction of all moral and spiritual logic.

  I would like to close with the assurance that if you are a practising Buddhist, or are interested in this expression of altruistic spirituality, then vegetarianism and on to veganism is the route to go. By trying one’s best to refrain from the terrorising and slaughter of innocent lives, one is drawing closer to the divine Buddha that indwells the heart of each and every sentient being.

  Thank you to the indefatigable Dr. Will Tuttle for giving me the opportunity to share with you these thoughts and such little knowledge as I possess.

  References:

  1. Jivakasutta of the Majjhima-Nikaya, tr. by I. B. Horner as The Middle Length Sayings, Pali Text Society, London, 1957, p. 33.

  2. The Nirvana Sutra, Volume 1, tr. by Mark L. Blum, Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai America, 2013, p. 110.

  3. The Nirvana Sutra, op. cit., pp. 110 – 112.

  4. The Nirvana Sutra, op. cit., p. 111.

  5. The Nirvana Sutra, op. cit., p. 113.

  6. The Nirvana Sutra, op. cit., pp. 112-113.

  7. The Lankavatara Sutra tr. by Dr. D. T. Suzuki, Prajna Press, Boulder, 1978, p. 217.

  8. The Lankavatara Sutra, op. cit., p. 219.

  9. The Angulimaliya Sutra, tr. by Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge for the present author, as yet unpublished.

  10. The Angulimaliya Sutra, tr. by Stephen Hodge.

  11. The Surangama Sutra, tr. by Lu K’uan Yü, B. I. Publications, Bombay, 1978, pp. 153 – 154.

  12. Vivisection Unveiled, Jon Carpenter Publications, Oxford, 1997, p. 10.

  Vegetarianism in Chinese Buddhism

  PROFESSOR GONG JUN

  The year 517 saw a landmark in the history of Chinese Buddhism when a congress of Buddhist monks was convened by the famous Buddhist emperor of the Liang Dynasty, Xiao Yan. The purpose of this meeting was to bring together all the eminent Buddhist monks to discuss the issue of endorsing the precept of prohibiting wine and meat consumption within the Buddhist order. As a result, a ban on wine and meat was promulgated in the form of a state administrative decree. From then on, vegetarianism has gradually developed into the basic custom for Chinese Buddhism, which applies to all the monks and nuns in terms of spiritual practice and daily life. This Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism typically includes abstaining from dairy products and eggs, which are seen as part of meat farming, as well as from leather, silk, fur, and other products derived from animals.

  The controversy that occurred in the sixth century over the relation of non-killing and vegetarianism to the doctrines of Buddhism is of historical significance, because the resulting congress had a profound and enduring impact on the development of Chinese Buddhism in later times. Not only has it determined the essential role of vegetarianism which characterizes Chinese Buddhism, but has also shaped a variety of customs and rituals in the secular life of the Chinese people of today.

  Buddhism originated in India. As far as the doctrine of primitive Indian Buddhism is concerned, we do not find a strict prohibition of meat-eating in the precepts of the early Theravada Buddhism. The ban on meat, as seen in Chinese Buddhism, is related mainly to the thought of Mahayana Buddhism as it developed in India. The introduction of Buddhism to China centered on the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism in which vegetarianism is clearly indicated, as seen in the famous Mahayana sutras such as Lankavatara Sutra, Nirvana Sutra, Mahavaipulya-Buddhavatamska Sutra, Surangam Sutra, Angulimaliya Sutra, and others.

  All of the aforementioned sacred texts expressly proclaim the concept of vegetarianism on the basis of compassion. These teachings indicate that the Buddhist idea of compassion as well as the ideal of monastic life are closely linked with the prohibition of meat. For example, in the Lankavatara Sutra the necessity of prohibiting meat is particularly addressed in one passage that reads, “flesh and blood are abandoned by the immortals and being excluded from the diet of the holy men, therefore Bodhisattvas should never eat meat,” and “meat-eating causes all kinds of obstacles which prevent one from any spiritual accomplishment, therefore Bodhisattvas who intend to help themselves and others should never eat meat.” The Nirvana Sutra says,

  Do not eat meat, do not drink wine, adjust the mind so as to reap the fruit of Dharma. Take seriously the retribution of your deeds, be they good or evil; whatever has been done, the consequences will fol
low just like the shadow follows the object. The cycle of cause and retribution runs ceaselessly in the past, present and future. Should you pass this life in futility, nothing can be done to get it back and you will deeply regret it.

  Here it is clearly pointed out that meat as unclean or impure food not only does harm to our body and mind, but will also directly impede our spiritual accomplishment as Buddhist practitioners. These renowned Mahayana sutras have played a pivotal role in the Chinese Buddhist world. Thus the notion that a Buddhist practitioner should keep a meat-free diet became essential to Chinese Buddhism from the early days of Buddhism’s arrival in China.

  Chinese Buddhists do not regulate their religious life in accordance with the early sutras of precepts as shown in Theravada Buddhism. The prevailing code of ethics is dominated by the Brahmajala Sutra, in which the provisions of vegetarianism are clearly put forward: “Do not eat any meat. A carnivore has ruined his great compassionate seeds of Buddha nature, and all sentient beings will avoid seeing him. Thus Bodhisattvas should not eat the flesh of any sentient beings, and eating meat incurs countless sins.” A sutra of precepts like this one tells us that vegetarianism is the basic requirement of the Buddhist ideal of a compassionate life. Should one contradict the principle of compassion, one cannot become a qualified Buddhist. It is not difficult to understand why the ideas and normative codes prevalent in Chinese Buddhist circles have a clear ban on meat, which is rare in other Buddhist traditions around the world.

  Researchers have found that the formation of the vegetarian tradition in Chinese Buddhism was not merely due to its reception of the requirements of Mahayana Buddhism, but more importantly to its integration with the indigenous traditions of Confucianism and Taoism in China. Even before Buddhism was introduced into China, the idea of benevolence and altruism had been foreshadowed by the teachings of Confucianism and Taoism. For example, in Confucianism it is said that “a gentleman keeps away from his slaughter-house and cook-room,” and “having heard their [the animals’] dying cries, he cannot bear to eat their flesh.” Taoist advocacy of naturalism also expressed the notion of respect, love and forgiveness for all lives, including animals. Thus non-killing sacrifices and offerings became a custom in Chinese folk life. It is also part of Chinese tradition that “one should fast in order to serve the ghosts and spirits” in the seasons of sacrifice, and on significant days such as solar and lunar eclipses. Additionally, China’s earliest medical book, The Inner Canon of Emperors puts forward a theory of health care that advocates “grains for nourishment, and fruits for supplement.” These factors may help explain why the precept of requiring a meat-free diet is not universally present in other Buddhist traditions around the world, and it is only in the field of Chinese Buddhism that the prohibition of meat-eating has become so important an issue and is whole-heartedly accepted.

  That Chinese Buddhists boldly and clearly call for vegetarianism is also related to their understanding and interpretation of Buddhist doctrines. Chinese Buddhists take compassion as the fundamental ethical teaching of Buddhism, which should be extended to all “sentient beings” including animals. Thus, killing animals for their flesh is the most serious and fundamental subversion of this principle. Unlike other Buddhist traditions, among the precepts of Chinese Buddhism, the prohibition of killing is placed above all the other precepts, hence the ban on meat acquires a deep religious significance. A carnivorous diet, according to the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, absolutely blocks one’s way to spiritual achievement.

  In addition, the act of eating meat is treated as a violation of the Buddhist law of causality. This can be illustrated by the example of the aforementioned Buddhist emperor. One important reason for his proposition of forsaking meat is that he believed that meat-eating itself is the cause for ignorance, retribution and calamities, and in his own words “eating the flesh of sentient beings is the cause of all sorts of suffering and disease.”

  For Chinese Buddhists, one must first become a vegetarian to be liberated from the suffering of human life. Vegetarianism remains essential to Chinese Buddhism to this day. In the Ming Dynasty it is readdressed by the eminent Buddhist monk, the Lotus-Pool master Zhu Hong in the form of poetry. His famous poem, “Seven Stroke Liquidation,” thoroughly expounded his view that meat-eating will cause endless grievances and unfortunate reincarnations, hence non-vegetarian dishes should be abandoned. Further, these endless grievances are also the root of all wars. Chinese Buddhists believe that “in the food we eat lies our grievance and hatred; if you want to know the reason for war, just go to the butcher’s house and listen to the cries at midnight.” This is a famous saying throughout China. Vegetarianism therefore is a peaceful diet or diet for peace in the sense that it offers the only lasting solution to war for the nation and the people.

  There is a popular saying in China that the mouth is the entrance of disease, meaning that diet is the first major destroyer of health. This notion is likely to be one that has evolved from Buddhism. In Chinese Buddhism, the ban on meat can be explained in both spiritual and medical terms. From the aspect of physical nutrition, the notion of “uncleanness or impurity” is proposed. It affirms that meat is not clean and does harm to our health. Thus we have the saying that “blood and flesh pave the way for one hundred diseases,” while vegetables make us “full of energy” and benefit us in many ways (Buddhist emperor Xiao Yan, “Ban on Wine and Meat”).

  This concept conforms to what is stated in the Mahayana sutras such as the Lankavatara Sutra that says the body of a meat-eater “usually contains lots of wild worms, and is likely to have sore psoriasis, tuberculoid leprosy, and many other diseases which are symptoms of uncleanness.” In summary, vegetarianism has been thoroughly discussed in Chinese Buddhism and has been fully expounded from the aspects of physical and mental health. The notion of vegetarianism in Chinese Buddhism also emphasizes the importance of keeping a “vegetarian mind,” meaning that the sense of compassion and ahimsa is the fundamental principle of vegetarianism.

  As stated in the early Buddhist sutras, Buddha allowed his disciples to eat meat in certain special circumstances, which is the so-called “three net meat”(not personally seeing the animals being slaughtered or hearing their cries at the moment of being killed, and that animals are not killed for the eater’s sake.) This concept has influenced Theravada Buddhism and the traditions of Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhism. They believe the precept of vegetarianism was not particularly stressed by Buddha himself, and the life of a mendicant cannot afford it, because whatever the donor offered should be received with appreciation. Hence Buddhism is not seen as a tradition that particularly advocates vegetarianism.

  Pedagogically speaking, the Buddha indeed highlighted the positive side with regard to his teaching of compassion and ahimsa. He inclined to teach his disciples by his own example, and to furnish followers the opportunity to get the point on their own. Because Buddhism attaches significance to practice, when the meaning of compassion is genuinely understood by a practitioner, his body and mind will automatically refuse any kind of harmful food. Besides, it is not the Buddha’s manner to use a coercive way to regulate others, and he preferred to provide his disciples with some positive guidance. For that reason, the teaching of compassion and ahimsa is highlighted, whereas the precept is “gradually endorsed according to the demand of situations.” This means that when something harmful is committed to the extent that it has affected the whole sangha and may have an impact on the reputation of the monks, the Buddha would take some action to prevent it reoccurring, and thus precepts have been gradually formally introduced only as necessary.

  This style of Buddha’s pedagogy has been well received by the Chinese Buddhists who wisely interpreted this controversial matter with their own words. An interesting question related to Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism is that Chinese Buddhists have developed a unique and ingenious understanding and interpretation of such a change regarding Buddha’s teaching of vegetarianism. Basically, it has changed from to
lerating meat in the early days of Indian Buddhism to strictly prohibiting meat and fervently advocating vegetarianism in Mahayana Buddhism. They argue that Buddha introduced the precepts into the sangha step-by-step, meaning in the early days Buddha’s focus was on the so-called “convenient way” in spreading the Dharma, hence allowing the disciples to eat meat in certain circumstances. This fact, in the meantime, indicates that tolerance of meat is not the ultimate instruction of Buddha but merely an expediency. In the sixth century, a famous Chinese Buddhist Shen Yue wrote an article entitled “On Ultimate Compassion” in which he put forward that the Buddha “set up the saying of three-net-meat” only to “adopt an expediency.” Not until Mahayana sutras such as the Nirvana Sutra appeared was the ban on meat formally issued and the earlier and more convenient way of meat-eating was clearly abandoned. The teaching of Mahayana Buddhism embodies the complete and ultimate instruction of the Buddha.

  This interpretation does not lack canonical basis. As a matter of fact, there emerged a formal ban on “three-net-meat” in India after some Mahayana sutras were publicized. It was proposed that “the tolerance of the three-net-meat serves to gradually prohibit it.” This means that the Buddha’s instruction of vegetarianism underwent a change from the expediency of Theravada teaching (allowing the three-net-meat) to the promotion of vegetarianism in Mahayana Buddhism. With respect to the Buddhist precept of eating a meat-free diet, the advocacy of vegetarianism in Chinese Buddhism is the peak of Mahayana Buddhism.

  In the sixth century, China officially endorsed vegetarianism as the precept by which all Buddhist monks and nuns must abide. This also had a profound impact on the secular life of Chinese society. Thus, the ban on killing animals for food in Chinese Buddhism not only triggered the fashion of vegetarianism within Buddhist temples and monasteries, but also affected other regulations in daily life and was related to a more comprehensive ban on meat. For instance, the empire extended the comprehensive ban on meat from the circle of Buddhists to a realm beyond Buddhism, such as the requirement of substituting fruits and vegetables for meat in sacred offerings and in many secular activities.